OLEDs

Diode that emits light from an organic compound

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Organic light-emitting diode

Prototype OLED lighting panels

TypeLED

An organic light-emitting diode (OLED), also known as organic electroluminescent (organic EL) diode,[1][2] is a type of light-emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive electroluminescent layer is an organic compound film that emits light in response to an electric current. This organic layer is situated between two electrodes; typically, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to create digital displays in devices such as television screens, computer monitors, and portable systems such as smartphones and handheld game consoles. A major area of research is the development of white OLED devices for use in solid-state lighting applications.[3][4][5]

There are two main families of OLED: those based on small molecules and those employing polymers. Adding mobile ions to an OLED creates a light-emitting electrochemical cell (LEC) which has a slightly different mode of operation. An OLED display can be driven with a passive-matrix (PMOLED) or active-matrix (AMOLED) control scheme. In the PMOLED scheme, each row and line in the display is controlled sequentially, one by one,[6] whereas AMOLED control uses a thin-film transistor (TFT) backplane to directly access and switch each individual pixel on or off, allowing for higher resolution and larger display sizes.

OLEDs are fundamentally different from LEDs, which are based on a p-n diode structure. In LEDs, doping is used to create p- and n-regions by changing the conductivity of the host semiconductor. OLEDs do not employ a p-n structure. Doping of OLEDs is used to increase radiative efficiency by direct modification of the quantum-mechanical optical recombination rate. Doping is additionally used to determine the wavelength of photon emission.[7]

An OLED display works without a backlight because it emits its own visible light. Thus, it can display deep black levels and can be thinner and lighter than a liquid crystal display (LCD). In low ambient light conditions (such as a dark room), an OLED screen can achieve a higher contrast ratio than an LCD, regardless of whether the LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamps or an LED backlight.

OLED displays are made in a similar way to LCDs, including manufacturing of several displays on a mother substrate that is later thinned and cut into several displays. Substrates for OLED displays come in the same sizes as those used for manufacturing LCDs. For OLED manufacture, after the formation of TFTs (for active matrix displays), addressable grids (for passive matrix displays), or indium tin oxide (ITO) segments (for segment displays), the display is coated with hole injection, transport and blocking layers, as well with electroluminescent material after the first two layers, after which ITO or metal may be applied again as a cathode. Later, the entire stack of materials is encapsulated. The TFT layer, addressable grid, or ITO segments serve as or are connected to the anode, which may be made of ITO or metal.[8][9] OLEDs can be made flexible and transparent, with transparent displays being used in smartphones with optical fingerprint scanners and flexible displays being used in foldable smartphones.

History

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André Bernanose and co-workers at the Nancy-Université in France made the first observations of electroluminescence in organic materials in the early s. They applied high alternating voltages in air to materials such as acridine orange dye, either deposited on or dissolved in cellulose or cellophane thin films. The proposed mechanism was either direct excitation of the dye molecules or excitation of electrons.[10][11][12][13]

In , Martin Pope and some of his co-workers at New York University in the United States developed ohmic dark-injecting electrode contacts to organic crystals.[14][15][16] They further described the necessary energetic requirements (work functions) for hole and electron injecting electrode contacts. These contacts are the basis of charge injection in all modern OLED devices. Pope's group also first observed direct current (DC) electroluminescence under vacuum on a single pure crystal of anthracene and on anthracene crystals doped with tetracene in [17] using a small area silver electrode at 400 volts. The proposed mechanism was field-accelerated electron excitation of molecular fluorescence.

Pope's group reported in [18] that in the absence of an external electric field, the electroluminescence in anthracene crystals is caused by the recombination of a thermalized electron and hole, and that the conducting level of anthracene is higher in energy than the exciton energy level. Also in , Wolfgang Helfrich and W. G. Schneider of the National Research Council in Canada produced double injection recombination electroluminescence for the first time in an anthracene single crystal using hole and electron injecting electrodes,[19] the forerunner of modern double-injection devices. In the same year, Dow Chemical researchers patented a method of preparing electroluminescent cells using high-voltage (500&#; V) AC-driven (100&#; Hz) electrically insulated one millimetre thin layers of a melted phosphor consisting of ground anthracene powder, tetracene, and graphite powder.[20] Their proposed mechanism involved electronic excitation at the contacts between the graphite particles and the anthracene molecules.

The first Polymer LED (PLED) to be created was by Roger Partridge at the National Physical Laboratory in the United Kingdom. It used a film of poly(N-vinylcarbazole) up to 2.2 micrometers thick located between two charge-injecting electrodes. The light generated was readily visible in normal lighting conditions though the polymer used had 2 limitations; low conductivity and the difficulty of injecting electrons.[21] Later development of conjugated polymers would allow others to largely eliminate these problems. His contribution has often been overlooked due to the secrecy NPL imposed on the project. When it was patented in [22] it was given a deliberately obscure "catch all" name while the government's Department for Industry tried and failed to find industrial collaborators to fund further development.[23] As a result publication was delayed until .[24][25][26][27]

Practical OLEDs

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Chemists Ching Wan Tang and Steven Van Slyke at Eastman Kodak built the first practical OLED device in .[28] This device used a two-layer structure with separate hole transporting and electron transporting layers such that recombination and light emission occurred in the middle of the organic layer; this resulted in a reduction in operating voltage and improvements in efficiency.[citation needed]

Research into polymer electroluminescence culminated in , with J. H. Burroughesat the Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University, UK, reporting a high-efficiency green light-emitting polymer-based device using 100 nm thick films of poly(p-phenylene vinylene).[29] Moving from molecular to macromolecular materials solved the problems previously encountered with the long-term stability of the organic films and enabled high-quality films to be easily made.[29] Subsequent research developed multilayer polymers and the new field of plastic electronics and OLED research and device production grew rapidly.[30] White OLEDs, pioneered by J. Kido et al. at Yamagata University, Japan in , achieved the commercialization of OLED-backlit displays and lighting.[31][32]

In , Kodak and Sanyo had entered into a partnership to jointly research, develop, and produce OLED displays. They announced the world's first 2.4-inch active-matrix, full-color OLED display in September the same year.[33] In September , they presented a prototype of 15-inch HDTV format display based on white OLEDs with color filters at the CEATEC Japan.[34]

Manufacturing of small molecule OLEDs was started in by Pioneer Corporation, followed by TDK in and Samsung-NEC Mobile Display (SNMD), which later became one of the world's largest OLED display manufacturers - Samsung Display, in .[35]

The Sony XEL-1, released in , was the first OLED television.[36] Universal Display Corporation, one of the OLED materials companies, holds a number of patents concerning the commercialization of OLEDs that are used by major OLED manufacturers around the world.[37][38]

On 5 December , JOLED, the successor of Sony and Panasonic's printable OLED business units, began the world's first commercial shipment of inkjet-printed OLED panels.[39][40]

Working principle

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Schematic of a bilayer OLED: 1. Cathode (&#;), 2. Emissive Layer, 3. Emission of radiation, 4. Conductive layer, 5. Anode (+)

A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated between two electrodes, the anode and cathode, all deposited on a substrate. The organic molecules are electrically conductive as a result of delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over part or all of the molecule. These materials have conductivity levels ranging from insulators to conductors, and are therefore considered organic semiconductors. The highest occupied and lowest unoccupied molecular orbitals (HOMO and LUMO) of organic semiconductors are analogous to the valence and conduction bands of inorganic semiconductors.[41]

Originally, the most basic polymer OLEDs consisted of a single organic layer. One example was the first light-emitting device synthesised by J. H. Burroughes et al., which involved a single layer of poly(p-phenylene vinylene). However multilayer OLEDs can be fabricated with two or more layers in order to improve device efficiency. As well as conductive properties, different materials may be chosen to aid charge injection at electrodes by providing a more gradual electronic profile,[42] or block a charge from reaching the opposite electrode and being wasted.[43] Many modern OLEDs incorporate a simple bilayer structure, consisting of a conductive layer and an emissive layer. Developments in OLED architecture in improved quantum efficiency (up to 19%) by using a graded heterojunction.[44] In the graded heterojunction architecture, the composition of hole and electron-transport materials varies continuously within the emissive layer with a dopant emitter. The graded heterojunction architecture combines the benefits of both conventional architectures by improving charge injection while simultaneously balancing charge transport within the emissive region.[45]

During operation, a voltage is applied across the OLED such that the anode is positive with respect to the cathode. Anodes are picked based upon the quality of their optical transparency, electrical conductivity, and chemical stability.[46] A current of electrons flows through the device from cathode to anode, as electrons are injected into the LUMO of the organic layer at the cathode and withdrawn from the HOMO at the anode. This latter process may also be described as the injection of electron holes into the HOMO. Electrostatic forces bring the electrons and the holes towards each other and they recombine forming an exciton, a bound state of the electron and hole. This happens closer to the electron-transport layer part of the emissive layer, because in organic semiconductors holes are generally more mobile than electrons.[citation needed] The decay of this excited state results in a relaxation of the energy levels of the electron, accompanied by emission of radiation whose frequency is in the visible region. The frequency of this radiation depends on the band gap of the material, in this case the difference in energy between the HOMO and LUMO.

As electrons and holes are fermions with half integer spin, an exciton may either be in a singlet state or a triplet state depending on how the spins of the electron and hole have been combined. Statistically three triplet excitons will be formed for each singlet exciton. Decay from triplet states (phosphorescence) is spin forbidden, increasing the timescale of the transition and limiting the internal efficiency of fluorescent devices. Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes make use of spin&#;orbit interactions to facilitate intersystem crossing between singlet and triplet states, thus obtaining emission from both singlet and triplet states and improving the internal efficiency.

Indium tin oxide (ITO) is commonly used as the anode material. It is transparent to visible light and has a high work function which promotes injection of holes into the HOMO level of the organic layer. A second conductive (injection) layer is typically added, which may consist of PEDOT:PSS,[47] as the HOMO level of this material generally lies between the work function of ITO and the HOMO of other commonly used polymers, reducing the energy barriers for hole injection. Metals such as barium and calcium are often used for the cathode as they have low work functions which promote injection of electrons into the LUMO of the organic layer.[48] Such metals are reactive, so they require a capping layer of aluminium to avoid degradation. Two secondary benefits of the aluminum capping layer include robustness to electrical contacts and the back reflection of emitted light out to the transparent ITO layer.

Experimental research has proven that the properties of the anode, specifically the anode/hole transport layer (HTL) interface topography plays a major role in the efficiency, performance, and lifetime of organic light-emitting diodes. Imperfections in the surface of the anode decrease anode-organic film interface adhesion, increase electrical resistance, and allow for more frequent formation of non-emissive dark spots in the OLED material adversely affecting lifetime. Mechanisms to decrease anode roughness for ITO/glass substrates include the use of thin films and self-assembled monolayers. Also, alternative substrates and anode materials are being considered to increase OLED performance and lifetime. Possible examples include single crystal sapphire substrates treated with gold (Au) film anodes yielding lower work functions, operating voltages, electrical resistance values, and increasing lifetime of OLEDs.[49]

Single carrier devices are typically used to study the kinetics and charge transport mechanisms of an organic material and can be useful when trying to study energy transfer processes. As current through the device is composed of only one type of charge carrier, either electrons or holes, recombination does not occur and no light is emitted. For example, electron only devices can be obtained by replacing ITO with a lower work function metal which increases the energy barrier of hole injection. Similarly, hole only devices can be made by using a cathode made solely of aluminium, resulting in an energy barrier too large for efficient electron injection.[50][51][52]

Carrier balance

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Balanced charge injection and transfer are required to get high internal efficiency, pure emission of luminance layer without contaminated emission from charge transporting layers, and high stability. A common way to balance charge is optimizing the thickness of the charge transporting layers but is hard to control. Another way is using the exciplex. Exciplex formed between hole-transporting (p-type) and electron-transporting (n-type) side chains to localize electron-hole pairs. Energy is then transferred to luminophore and provide high efficiency. An example of using exciplex is grafting Oxadiazole and carbazole side units in red diketopyrrolopyrrole-doped Copolymer main chain shows improved external quantum efficiency and color purity in no optimized OLED.[53]

Material technologies

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Small molecules

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Organic small-molecule electroluminescent materials have the advantages of a wide variety, easy to purify, and strong chemical modifications. In order to make the luminescent materials to emit light as required, some chromophores or unsaturated groups such as alkene bonds and benzene rings will usually be introduced in the molecular structure design to change the size of the conjugation range of the material, so that the photophysical properties of the material changes. In general, the larger the range of π-electron conjugation system, the longer the wavelength of light emitted by the material. For instance, with the increase of the number of benzene rings, the fluorescence emission peak of benzene, naphthalene, anthracene,[54] and butyl gradually red-shifted from 283 nm to 480 nm. Common organic small molecule electroluminescent materials include aluminum complexes, anthracenes, biphenyl acetylene aryl derivatives, coumarin derivatives,[55] and various fluorochromes. Efficient OLEDs using small molecules were first developed by Ching W. Tang et al.[56] at Eastman Kodak. The term OLED traditionally refers specifically to this type of device, though the term SM-OLED is also in use.[41]

Molecules commonly used in OLEDs include organometallic chelates (for example Alq3, used in the organic light-emitting device reported by Tang et al.), fluorescent and phosphorescent dyes and conjugated dendrimers. A number of materials are used for their charge transport properties, for example triphenylamine and derivatives are commonly used as materials for hole transport layers.[57] Fluorescent dyes can be chosen to obtain light emission at different wavelengths, and compounds such as perylene, rubrene and quinacridone derivatives are often used.[58] Alq3 has been used as a green emitter, electron transport material and as a host for yellow and red emitting dyes.

Because of the structural flexibility of small-molecule electroluminescent materials, thin films can be prepared by vacuum vapor deposition, which is more expensive and of limited use for large-area devices. The vacuum coating system, however, can make the entire process from film growth to OLED device preparation in a controlled and complete operating environment, helping to obtain uniform and stable films, thus ensuring the final fabrication of high-performance OLED devices.However, small molecule organic dyes are prone to fluorescence quenching[59] in the solid state, resulting in lower luminescence efficiency. The doped OLED devices are also prone to crystallization, which reduces the luminescence and efficiency of the devices. Therefore, the development of devices based on small-molecule electroluminescent materials is limited by high manufacturing costs, poor stability, short life, and other shortcomings. Coherent emission from a laser dye-doped tandem SM-OLED device, excited in the pulsed regime, has been demonstrated.[60] The emission is nearly diffraction limited with a spectral width similar to that of broadband dye lasers.[61]

Researchers report luminescence from a single polymer molecule, representing the smallest possible organic light-emitting diode (OLED) device.[62] Scientists will be able to optimize substances to produce more powerful light emissions. Finally, this work is a first step towards making molecule-sized components that combine electronic and optical properties. Similar components could form the basis of a molecular computer.[63]

Polymer light-emitting diodes

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Polymer light-emitting diodes (PLED, P-OLED), also light-emitting polymers (LEP), involve an electroluminescent conductive polymer that emits light when connected to an external voltage. They are used as a thin film for full-spectrum colour displays. Polymer OLEDs are quite efficient and require a relatively small amount of power for the amount of light produced.

Vacuum deposition is not a suitable method for forming thin films of polymers. If the polymeric OLED films are made by vacuum vapor deposition, the chain elements will be cut off and the original photophysical properties will be compromised. However, polymers can be processed in solution, and spin coating is a common method of depositing thin polymer films. This method is more suited to forming large-area films than thermal evaporation. No vacuum is required, and the emissive materials can also be applied on the substrate by a technique derived from commercial inkjet printing.[64][65] However, as the application of subsequent layers tends to dissolve those already present, formation of multilayer structures is difficult with these methods. The metal cathode may still need to be deposited by thermal evaporation in vacuum. An alternative method to vacuum deposition is to deposit a Langmuir-Blodgett film.

Typical polymers used in PLED displays include derivatives of poly(p-phenylene vinylene) and polyfluorene. Substitution of side chains onto the polymer backbone may determine the colour of emitted light[66] or the stability and solubility of the polymer for performance and ease of processing.[67] While unsubstituted poly(p-phenylene vinylene) (PPV) is typically insoluble, a number of PPVs and related poly(naphthalene vinylene)s (PNVs) that are soluble in organic solvents or water have been prepared via ring opening metathesis polymerization.[68][69][70] These water-soluble polymers or conjugated poly electrolytes (CPEs) also can be used as hole injection layers alone or in combination with nanoparticles like graphene.[71]

Phosphorescent materials

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Ir(mppy)3, a phosphorescent dopant which emits green light

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Phosphorescent organic light-emitting diodes use the principle of electrophosphorescence to convert electrical energy in an OLED into light in a highly efficient manner,[73][74] with the internal quantum efficiencies of such devices approaching 100%.[75]

Typically, a polymer such as poly(N-vinylcarbazole) is used as a host material to which an organometallic complex is added as a dopant. Iridium complexes[74] such as Ir(mppy)3[72] as of were a focus of research, although complexes based on other heavy metals such as platinum[73] have also been used.

The heavy metal atom at the centre of these complexes exhibits strong spin-orbit coupling, facilitating intersystem crossing between singlet and triplet states. By using these phosphorescent materials, both singlet and triplet excitons will be able to decay radiatively, hence improving the internal quantum efficiency of the device compared to a standard OLED where only the singlet states will contribute to emission of light.

Applications of OLEDs in solid state lighting require the achievement of high brightness with good CIE coordinates (for white emission). The use of macromolecular species like polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS) in conjunction with the use of phosphorescent species such as Ir for printed OLEDs have exhibited brightnesses as high as 10,000 cd/m2.[76]

Device architectures

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Structure

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Bottom emission

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a) Bottom-emitting and b) top-emitting OLED structures; c,d) Schematic diagrams based on bottom-emitting and top-emitting OLEDs with low and high contrast ratio, respectively.

The bottom-emission organic light-emitting diode (BE-OLED) is the architecture that was used in the early-stage AMOLED displays. It had a transparent anode fabricated on a glass substrate, and a shiny reflective cathode. Light is emitted from the transparent anode direction. To reflect all the light towards the anode direction, a relatively thick metal cathode such as aluminum is used. For the anode, high-transparency indium tin oxide (ITO) was a typical choice to emit as much light as possible.[77] Organic thin-films, including the emissive layer that actually generates the light, are then sandwiched between the ITO anode and the reflective metal cathode. The downside of bottom emission structure is that the light has to travel through the pixel drive circuits such as the thin film transistor (TFT) substrate, and the area from which light can be extracted is limited and the light emission efficiency is reduced.

Top emission

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An alternative configuration is to switch the mode of emission. A reflective anode, and a transparent (or more often semi-transparent) cathode are used so that the light emits from the cathode side, and this configuration is called top-emission OLED (TE-OLED). Unlike BEOLEDs where the anode is made of transparent conductive ITO, this time the cathode needs to be transparent, and the ITO material is not an ideal choice for the cathode because of a damage issue due to the sputtering process.[78] Thus, a thin metal film such as pure Ag and the Mg:Ag alloy are used for the semi-transparent cathode due to their high transmittance and high conductivity.[79] In contrast to the bottom emission, light is extracted from the opposite side in top emission without the need of passing through multiple drive circuit layers. Thus, the light generated can be extracted more efficiently.

Improvements

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Micro-cavity theory

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Sony's Super Top Emission OLED technology enhances the color purity of emitted lights.

When light waves meet while traveling along the same medium, wave interference occurs. This interference can be constructive or destructive. It is sometimes desirable for several waves of the same frequency to sum up into a wave with higher amplitudes.

Since both electrodes are reflective in TEOLED, light reflections can happen within the diode, and they cause more complex interferences than those in BEOLEDs. In addition to the two-beam interference, there exists a multi-resonance interference between two electrodes. Because the structure of TEOLEDs is similar to that of the Fabry-Perot resonator or laser resonator, which contains two parallel mirrors comparable to the two reflective electrodes),[80] this effect is especially strong in TEOLED. This two-beam interference and the Fabry-Perot interferences are the main factors in determining the output spectral intensity of OLED. This optical effect is called the "micro-cavity effect."

In the case of OLED, that means the cavity in a TEOLED could be especially designed to enhance the light output intensity and color purity with a narrow band of wavelengths, without consuming more power. In TEOLEDs, the microcavity effect commonly occurs, and when and how to restrain or make use of this effect is indispensable for device design. To match the conditions of constructive interference, different layer thicknesses are applied according to the resonance wavelength of that specific color. The thickness conditions are carefully designed and engineered according to the peak resonance emitting wavelengths of the blue (460 nm), green (530 nm), and red (610 nm) color LEDs. This technology greatly improves the light-emission efficiency of OLEDs, and are able to achieve a wider color gamut due to high color purity.

Color filters

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In "white + color filter method", red, green, and blue emissions are obtained from the same white-light LEDs using different color filters.[81] With this method, the OLED materials produce white light, which is then filtered to obtain the desired RGB colors. This method eliminated the need to deposit three different organic emissive materials, so only one kind of OLED material is used to produce white light. It also eliminated the uneven degradation rate of blue pixels vs. red and green pixels. Disadvantages of this method are low color purity and contrast. Also, the filters absorb most of the emitted light, requiring the background white light to be relatively strong to compensate for the drop in brightness, and thus the power consumption for such displays can be higher.

Color filters can also be implemented into bottom- and top-emission OLEDs. By adding the corresponding RGB color filters after the semi-transparent cathode, even purer wavelengths of light can be obtained. The use of a microcavity in top-emission OLEDs with color filters also contributes to an increase in the contrast ratio by reducing the reflection of incident ambient light.[82] In a conventional panel, a circular polarizer was installed on the panel surface. While this was provided to prevent the reflection of ambient light, it also reduced the light output. By replacing this polarizing layer with color filters, the light intensity is not affected, and essentially all ambient reflected light can be cut, allowing a better contrast on the display panel. This potentially reduced the need for brighter pixels and can lower the power consumption.

Other architectures

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Transparent OLEDs

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Transparent OLEDs use transparent or semi-transparent contacts on both sides of the device to create displays that can be made to be both top and bottom emitting (transparent). TOLEDs can greatly improve contrast, making it much easier to view displays in bright sunlight.[83] This technology can be used in Head-up displays, smart windows or augmented reality applications.

Graded heterojunction

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Graded heterojunction OLEDs gradually decrease the ratio of electron holes to electron transporting chemicals.[44] This results in almost double the quantum efficiency of existing OLEDs.

Stacked OLEDs

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Stacked OLEDs use a pixel architecture that stacks the red, green, and blue subpixels on top of one another instead of next to one another, leading to substantial increase in gamut and color depth,[84] and greatly reducing pixel gap. Other display technologies with RGB (and RGBW) pixels mapped next to each other, tend to decrease potential resolution.

Inverted OLED

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In contrast to a conventional OLED, in which the anode is placed on the substrate, an inverted OLED uses a bottom cathode that can be connected to the drain end of an n-channel TFT, especially for the low-cost amorphous silicon TFT backplane useful in the manufacturing of AMOLED displays.[85]

All OLED displays (passive and active matrix) use a driver IC, often mounted using the chip-on-glass (COG) technology with an anisotropic conductive film.[86]

Color patterning technologies

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Shadow mask patterning method

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The most commonly used patterning method for organic light-emitting displays is shadow masking during film deposition,[87] also called the "RGB side-by-side" method or "RGB pixelation" method. Metal sheets with multiple apertures made of low thermal expansion material, such as nickel alloy, are placed between the heated evaporation source and substrate, so that the organic or inorganic material from the evaporation source is masked off, or blocked by the sheet from reaching the substrate in most locations, so the materials are deposited only on the desired locations on the substrate, and the rest is deposited and remains on the sheet. Almost all small OLED displays for smartphones have been manufactured using this method. Fine metal masks (FMMs) made by photochemical machining, reminiscent of old CRT shadow masks, are used in this process. The dot density of the mask will determine the pixel density of the finished display.[88] Fine Hybrid Masks (FHMs) are lighter than FFMs, reducing bending caused by the mask's own weight, and are made using an electroforming process.[89][90] This method requires heating the electroluminescent materials at 300 °C using a thermal method in a high vacuum of 10&#;5 Pa. An oxygen meter ensures that no oxygen enters the chamber as it could damage (through oxidation) the electroluminescent material, which is in powder form. The mask is aligned with the mother substrate before every use, and it is placed just below the substrate. The substrate and mask assembly are placed at the top of the deposition chamber.[91] Afterwards, the electrode layer is deposited, by subjecting silver and aluminum powder to  °C, using an electron beam.[92] Shadow masks allow for high pixel densities of up to 2,250 DPI (890 dot/cm). High pixel densities are necessary for virtual reality headsets.[93]

White + color filter method

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Although the shadow-mask patterning method is a mature technology used from the first OLED manufacturing, it causes many issues like dark spot formation due to mask-substrate contact or misalignment of the pattern due to the deformation of shadow mask. Such defect formation can be regarded as trivial when the display size is small, however it causes serious issues when a large display is manufactured, which brings significant production yield loss. To circumvent such issues, white emission devices with 4-sub-pixel color filters (white, red, green and blue) have been used for large televisions. In spite of the light absorption by the color filter, state-of-the-art OLED televisions can reproduce color very well, such as 100% NTSC, and consume little power at the same time. This is done by using an emission spectrum with high human-eye sensitivity, special color filters with a low spectrum overlap, and performance tuning with color statistics into consideration.[94] This approach is also called the "Color-by-white" method.

Other color patterning approaches

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There are other types of emerging patterning technologies to increase the manufacturability of OLEDs. Patternable organic light-emitting devices use a light or heat activated electroactive layer. A latent material (PEDOT-TMA) is included in this layer that, upon activation, becomes highly efficient as a hole injection layer. Using this process, light-emitting devices with arbitrary patterns can be prepared.[95]

Colour patterning can be accomplished by means of a laser, such as a radiation-induced sublimation transfer (RIST).[96]

Organic vapour jet printing (OVJP) uses an inert carrier gas, such as argon or nitrogen, to transport evaporated organic molecules (as in organic vapour phase deposition). The gas is expelled through a micrometre-sized nozzle or nozzle array close to the substrate as it is being translated. This allows printing arbitrary multilayer patterns without the use of solvents.

Like ink jet material deposition, inkjet etching (IJE) deposits precise amounts of solvent onto a substrate designed to selectively dissolve the substrate material and induce a structure or pattern. Inkjet etching of polymer layers in OLED's can be used to increase the overall out-coupling efficiency. In OLEDs, light produced from the emissive layers of the OLED is partially transmitted out of the device and partially trapped inside the device by total internal reflection (TIR). This trapped light is wave-guided along the interior of the device until it reaches an edge where it is dissipated by either absorption or emission. Inkjet etching can be used to selectively alter the polymeric layers of OLED structures to decrease overall TIR and increase out-coupling efficiency of the OLED. Compared to a non-etched polymer layer, the structured polymer layer in the OLED structure from the IJE process helps to decrease the TIR of the OLED device. IJE solvents are commonly organic instead of water-based due to their non-acidic nature and ability to effectively dissolve materials at temperatures under the boiling point of water.[97]

Transfer-printing is an emerging technology to assemble large numbers of parallel OLED and AMOLED devices efficiently. It takes advantage of standard metal deposition, photolithography, and etching to create alignment marks commonly on glass or other device substrates. Thin polymer adhesive layers are applied to enhance resistance to particles and surface defects. Microscale ICs are transfer-printed onto the adhesive surface and then baked to fully cure adhesive layers. An additional photosensitive polymer layer is applied to the substrate to account for the topography caused by the printed ICs, reintroducing a flat surface. Photolithography and etching removes some polymer layers to uncover conductive pads on the ICs. Afterwards, the anode layer is applied to the device backplane to form the bottom electrode. OLED layers are applied to the anode layer with conventional vapor deposition, and covered with a conductive metal electrode layer. As of transfer-printing was capable to print onto target substrates up to 500 mm × 400 mm. This size limit needs to expand for transfer-printing to become a common process for the fabrication of large OLED/AMOLED displays.[98]

Experimental OLED displays using conventional photolithography techniques instead of FMMs have been demonstrated, allowing for large substrate sizes (as it eliminates the need for a mask that needs to be as large as the substrate) and good yield control.[99] Visionox has announced the use of photolithography for depositing OLED emissive materials.[100]

Thin-film transistor backplanes

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For a high resolution display like a TV, a thin-film transistor (TFT) backplane is necessary to drive the pixels correctly. As of , low-temperature polycrystalline silicon (LTPS) &#; TFT is widely used for commercial AMOLED displays. LTPS-TFT has variation of the performance in a display, so various compensation circuits have been reported.[101] Due to the size limitation of the excimer laser used for LTPS, the AMOLED size was limited. To cope with the hurdle related to the panel size, amorphous-silicon/microcrystalline-silicon backplanes have been reported with large display prototype demonstrations.[102] An indium gallium zinc oxide (IGZO) backplane can also be used. Large OLED displays usually use AOS (amporphous oxide semiconductor) TFT transistors instead, also called oxide TFTs[103] and these are usually based on IGZO.[104]

Many AMOLED displays use LTPO TFT transistors. These transistors offer stability at low refresh rates, and variable refresh rates, which allows for power saving displays that do not show visual artifacts.[105][106][107]

Advantages

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The different manufacturing process of OLEDs has several advantages over flat panel displays made with LCD technology.

Lower cost in the future

OLEDs can be printed onto any suitable substrate by an inkjet printer or even by screen printing,

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theoretically making them cheaper to produce than LCD or plasma displays. However, fabrication of the OLED substrate as of is costlier than that for TFT LCDs.

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Roll-to-roll vapor-deposition methods for organic devices do allow mass production of thousands of devices per minute for minimal cost; however, this technique also induces problems: devices with multiple layers can be challenging to make because of registration &#; lining up the different printed layers to the required degree of accuracy.

Lightweight and flexible plastic substrates

OLED displays can be fabricated on flexible plastic substrates, leading to the possible fabrication of flexible organic light-emitting diodes for other new applications, such as roll-up displays embedded in fabrics or clothing. If a substrate like polyethylene terephthalate (PET)

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can be used, the displays may be produced inexpensively. Furthermore, plastic substrates are shatter-resistant, unlike the glass displays used in LCD devices.

Better picture quality

OLEDs enable a greater contrast ratio and wider viewing angle compared to LCDs, because OLED pixels emit light directly. This also provides a deeper black level, since a black OLED display emits no light. Furthermore, OLED pixel colors appear correct and unshifted, even as the viewing angle approaches 90° from the normal. Usually, OLEDs can displays more color spaces (for example, sRGB and DCI-P3) than LCDs.

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Better power efficiency

LCDs filter the light emitted from a backlight, allowing a small fraction of light through. Thus, they cannot show true black. However, an inactive OLED element does not produce light or consume power, allowing true blacks.

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Removing the backlight also makes OLEDs lighter because some substrates are not needed.

Response time

OLEDs also have a much faster response time than an LCD. Using response time compensation technologies, the fastest modern LCDs can reach response times as low as 1

 

ms for their fastest color transition, and are capable of refresh frequencies as high as 240

 

Hz. According to LG, OLED response times are up to 1,000 times faster than LCD,

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putting conservative estimates at under 10

 

μs (0.01

 

ms), which could theoretically accommodate refresh frequencies approaching 100

 

kHz (100,000

 

Hz). Due to their extremely fast response time, OLED displays can also be easily designed to be strobed, creating an effect similar to CRT flicker in order to avoid the sample-and-hold behavior seen on both LCDs and some OLED displays, which creates the perception of motion blur.

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Disadvantages

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Light-emitting polymer (LEP) display showing partial failure An old OLED display showing wear

Lifespan

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The biggest technical problem for OLEDs is the limited lifetime of the organic materials. One technical report on an OLED TV panel found that after 1,000 hours, the blue luminance degraded by 12%, the red by 7% and the green by 8%.[115] In particular, blue OLEDs at that time had a lifetime of around 14,000 hours to half original brightness (five years at eight hours per day) when used for flat-panel displays. This is lower than the typical lifetime of LCD, LED or PDP technology; each rated for about 25,000&#;40,000 hours to half brightness, depending on manufacturer and model. One major challenge for OLED displays is the formation of dark spots due to the ingress of oxygen and moisture, which degrades the organic material over time whether or not the display is powered.[116][117][118] In , LG Electronics reported an expected lifetime of 100,000 hours, up from 36,000 hours in .[119] A US Department of Energy paper shows that the expected lifespans of OLED lighting products goes down with increasing brightness, with an expected lifespan of 40,000 hours at 25% brightness, or 10,000 hours at 100% brightness.[120][121]

Cause of degradation

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Degradation occurs because of the accumulation of nonradiative recombination centers and luminescence quenchers in the emissive zone. It is said that the chemical breakdown in the semiconductors occurs in four steps:

1. recombination

   [

   a

   ]

   of charge carriers through the absorption of UV light
2. homolytic dissociation
3. subsequent radical addition reactions that form

   π

   radicals
4. disproportionation between two radicals resulting in hydrogen-atom transfer reactions

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   122

   ]

However, some manufacturers' displays aim to increase the lifespan of OLED displays, pushing their expected life past that of LCD displays by improving light outcoupling, thus achieving the same brightness at a lower drive current.[123][124] In , experimental OLEDs were created which can sustain 400 cd/m2 of luminance for over 198,000 hours for green OLEDs and 62,000 hours for blue OLEDs.[125] In , OLED lifetime to half of the initial brightness was improved to 900,000 hours for red, 1,450,000 hours for yellow and 400,000 hours for green at an initial luminance of 1,000 cd/m2.[126] Proper encapsulation is critical for prolonging an OLED display's lifetime, as the OLED light emitting electroluminescent materials are sensitive to oxygen and moisture. When exposed to moisture or oxygen, the electroluminescent materials in OLEDs degrade as they oxidize, generating black spots and reducing or shrinking the area that emits light, reducing light output. This reduction can occur in a pixel by pixel basis. This can also lead to delamination of the electrode layer, eventually leading to complete panel failure.

Degradation occurs three orders of magnitude faster when exposed to moisture than when exposed to oxygen. Encapsulation can be performed by applying an epoxy adhesive with dessicant,[127] by laminating a glass sheet with epoxy glue and dessicant[128] followed by vacuum degassing, or by using Thin-Film Encapsulation (TFE), which is a multi-layer coating of alternating organic and inorganic layers. The organic layers are applied using inkjet printing, and the inorganic layers are applied using Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD). The encapsulation process is carried out under a nitrogen environment, using UV-curable LOCA glue and the electroluminescent and electrode material deposition processes are carried out under a high vacuum. The encapsulation and material deposition processes are carried out by a single machine, after the Thin-film transistors have been applied. The transistors are applied in a process that is the same for LCDs. The electroluminescent materials can also be applied using inkjet printing.[129][130][131][92][132][127][133]

Color balance

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The OLED material used to produce blue light degrades much more rapidly than the materials used to produce other colors; in other words, blue light output will decrease relative to the other colors of light. This variation in the differential color output will change the color balance of the display, and is much more noticeable than a uniform decrease in overall luminance.[134] This can be avoided partially by adjusting the color balance, but this may require advanced control circuits and input from a knowledgeable user. More commonly, though, manufacturers optimize the size of the R, G and B subpixels to reduce the current density through the subpixel in order to equalize lifetime at full luminance. For example, a blue subpixel may be 75% larger than the green subpixel. The red subpixel may be 10% larger than the green.

Efficiency of blue OLEDs

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Improvements to the efficiency and lifetime of blue OLEDs is vital to the success of OLEDs as replacements for LCD technology. Considerable research has been invested in developing blue OLEDs with high external quantum efficiency, as well as a deeper blue color.[135][136][137]

Since , research focuses on organic materials exhibiting thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF), discovered at Kyushu University OPERA and UC Santa Barbara CPOS. TADF would allow stable and high-efficiency solution processable (meaning that the organic materials are layered in solutions producing thinner layers) blue emitters, with internal quantum efficiencies reaching 100%.[138] Early in ,[55] TADF materials based on oxygen-based fully bridged boron-type electron accepttors had achieved huge breakthrough in their proprities. The external quantum efficiency of TADF-OLED for blue and green light had achieved 38%, with thin full-width half-maximum and high color purity. In , Han et al.[139] synthesized a new D-A type luminescent material, TDBA-Cz, and used the m-AC-DBNA synthesized by Meng et al. as a control to investigate the effect of the substitution site of the carbazole unit as an electron donor on the oxygen-bridged triphenylboron electron acceptor unit on the photophysical properties of the overall molecule. It was found that the introduction of two carbazole units into the same benzene ring of the oxygen-bridged triphenylboron electron acceptor unit could effectively suppress the conformational relaxation of the molecule during the radiative transition, resulting in narrow bandwidth blue light emission. In addition, TDBA-Cz is the first reported blue material to achieve both a FWHM down to 45 nm and a maximum EQE of 21.4% in a non-doped TADF-OLED.

Blue TADF emitters are expected to market by [140][141] and would be used for WOLED displays with phosphorescent color filters, as well as blue OLED displays with ink-printed QD color filters.

Water damage

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Water can instantly damage the organic materials of the displays. Therefore, improved sealing processes are important for practical manufacturing. Water damage especially may limit the longevity of more flexible displays.[142]

Outdoor performance

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As an emissive display technology, OLEDs rely completely upon converting electricity to light, unlike most LCDs which are to some extent reflective. E-paper leads the way in efficiency with ~ 33% ambient light reflectivity, enabling the display to be used without any internal light source. The metallic cathode in an OLED acts as a mirror, with reflectance approaching 80%, leading to poor readability in bright ambient light such as outdoors. However, with the proper application of a circular polarizer and antireflective coatings, the diffuse reflectance can be reduced to less than 0.1%. With 10,000 fc incident illumination (typical test condition for simulating outdoor illumination), that yields an approximate photopic contrast of 5:1. Advances in OLED technologies, however, enable OLEDs to become actually better than LCDs in bright sunlight. The AMOLED display in the Galaxy S5, for example, was found to outperform all LCD displays on the market in terms of power usage, brightness and reflectance.[143]

Power consumption

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While an OLED will consume around 40% of the power of an LCD displaying an image that is primarily black, for the majority of images it will consume 60&#;80% of the power of an LCD. However, an OLED can use more than 300% power to display an image with a white background, such as a document or web site.[144] This can lead to reduced battery life in mobile devices when white backgrounds are used.

Screen flicker

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Many OLEDs use pulse width modulation to display colour/brightness gradations. For example, a pixel instructed to display gray will flicker on and off rapidly, creating a subtle strobe effect.[145] The alternative way to decrease brightness would be to decrease power to the display, which would eliminate screen flicker to the detriment of colour balance, which deteriorates as brightness decreases. However, use of PWM gradations may be more harmful for eye health.[146]

Manufacturers and commercial uses

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Magnified image of the AMOLED screen on the Google Nexus One smartphone using the RGBG system of the PenTile Matrix Family A 3.8

 

cm (1.5

 

in) OLED display from a Creative ZEN V media player OLED lighting in a shopping mall in Aachen, Germany

Almost all OLED manufacturers rely on material deposition equipment that is only made by a handful of companies,[147] the most notable one being Canon Tokki, a unit of Canon Inc. Canon Tokki is reported to have a near-monopoly of the giant OLED-manufacturing vacuum machines, notable for their 100-metre (330 ft) size.[148] Apple has relied solely on Canon Tokki in its bid to introduce its own OLED displays for the iPhones released in .[149] The electroluminescent materials needed for OLEDs are also made by a handful of companies, some of them being Merck, Universal Display Corporation and LG Chem.[150] The machines that apply these materials can operate continuously for 5&#;6 days, and can process a mother substrate in 5 minutes.[151]

OLED technology is used in commercial applications such as displays for mobile phones and portable digital media players, car radios and digital cameras among others, as well as lighting.[152] Such portable display applications favor the high light output of OLEDs for readability in sunlight and their low power drain. Portable displays are also used intermittently, so the lower lifespan of organic displays is less of an issue. Prototypes have been made of flexible and rollable displays which use OLEDs' unique characteristics. Applications in flexible signs and lighting are also being developed.[153] OLED lighting offers several advantages over LED lighting, such as higher quality illumination, more diffuse light source, and panel shapes.[152] Philips Lighting has made OLED lighting samples under the brand name "Lumiblade" available online[154] and Novaled AG based in Dresden, Germany, introduced a line of OLED desk lamps called "Victory" in September, .[155]

Nokia introduced OLED mobile phones including the N85 and the N86 8MP, both of which feature an AMOLED display. OLEDs have also been used in most Motorola and Samsung color cell phones, as well as some HTC, LG and Sony Ericsson models.[156] OLED technology can also be found in digital media players such as the Creative ZEN V, the iriver clix, the Zune HD and the Sony Walkman X Series.

The Google and HTC Nexus One smartphone includes an AMOLED screen, as does HTC's own Desire and Legend phones. However, due to supply shortages of the Samsung-produced displays, certain HTC models will use Sony's SLCD displays in the future,[157] while the Google and Samsung Nexus S smartphone will use "Super Clear LCD" instead in some countries.[158]

OLED displays were used in watches made by Fossil (JR-) and Diesel (DZ-). Other manufacturers of OLED panels include Anwell Technologies Limited (Hong Kong),[159] AU Optronics (Taiwan),[160] Chimei Innolux Corporation (Taiwan),[161] LG (Korea),[162] and others.[163]

DuPont stated in a press release in May , that they can produce a 50-inch OLED TV in two minutes with a new printing technology. If this can be scaled up in terms of manufacturing, then the total cost of OLED TVs would be greatly reduced. DuPont also states that OLED TVs made with this less expensive technology can last up to 15 years if left on for a normal eight-hour day.[164][165]

The use of OLEDs may be subject to patents held by Universal Display Corporation, Eastman Kodak, DuPont, General Electric, Royal Philips Electronics, numerous universities and others.[166] By , thousands of patents associated with OLEDs, came from larger corporations and smaller technology companies.[41]

Flexible OLED displays have been used by manufacturers to create curved displays such as the Galaxy S7 Edge but they were not in devices that can be flexed by the users.[167] Samsung demonstrated a roll-out display in .[168]

On 31 October , Royole, a Chinese electronics company, unveiled the world's first foldable screen featuring a flexible OLED display.[169] On 20 February , Samsung announced the Samsung Galaxy Fold with a foldable OLED display from Samsung Display, its majority-owned subsidiary.[170] At MWC on 25 February , Huawei announced the Huawei Mate X featuring a foldable OLED display from BOE.[171][172]

The s also saw the wide adoption of tracking gate-line in pixel (TGP), which moves the driving circuitry from the borders of the display to in between the display's pixels, allowing for narrow bezels.[173]

In the German startup Inuru has announced to manufacture low-cost OLED with printing for packaging and fashion applications. [174]

Fashion

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Textiles incorporating OLEDs are an innovation in the fashion world and pose for a way to integrate lighting to bring inert objects to a whole new level of fashion. The hope is to combine the comfort and low cost properties of textile with the OLEDs properties of illumination and low energy consumption. Although this scenario of illuminated clothing is highly plausible, challenges are still a road block. Some issues include: the lifetime of the OLED, rigidness of flexible foil substrates, and the lack of research in making more fabric like photonic textiles.[175]

Automotive

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The number of automakers using OLEDs is still rare and limited to the high-end of the market. For example, the Lexus RX features an OLED display instead of a thin film transistor (TFT-LCD) display.

A Japanese manufacturer Pioneer Electronic Corporation produced the first car stereos with a monochrome OLED display, which was also the world's first OLED product.[176] The Aston Martin DB9 incorporated the world's first automotive OLED display,[177] which was manufactured by Yazaki,[178] followed by the Jeep Grand Cherokee and the Chevrolet Corvette C6.[179] The Hyundai Sonata and Kia Soul EV use a 3.5-inch white PMOLED display.

Company-specific applications

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Samsung

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Samsung AMOLED displays

By , Samsung Display, a subsidiary of South Korea's largest conglomerate and a former Samsung-NEC joint venture, was the world's largest OLED manufacturer, producing 40% of the OLED displays made in the world,[180] and as of , has a 98% share of the global AMOLED market.[181] The company is leading the world of OLED industry, generating $100.2 million out of the total $475 million revenues in the global OLED market in .[182] As of , it held more than 600 American patents and more than international patents, making it the largest owner of AMOLED technology patents.[182]

Samsung SDI announced in , the world's largest OLED TV at the time, at 21 inches (53 cm).[183] This OLED featured the highest resolution at the time, of 6.22 million pixels. In addition, the company adopted active matrix-based technology for its low power consumption and high-resolution qualities. This was exceeded in January , when Samsung showcased the world's largest and thinnest OLED TV at the time, at 31 inches (78 cm) and 4.3 mm.[184]

In May , Samsung unveiled an ultra-thin 12.1 inch (30 cm) laptop OLED display concept, with a 1,280×768 resolution with infinite contrast ratio.[185] According to Woo Jong Lee, Vice President of the Mobile Display Marketing Team at Samsung SDI, the company expected OLED displays to be used in notebook PCs as soon as .[186]

In October , Samsung showcased the world's thinnest OLED display, also the first to be "flappable" and bendable.[187] It measures just 0.05 mm (thinner than paper), yet a Samsung staff member said that it is "technically possible to make the panel thinner".[187] To achieve this thickness, Samsung etched an OLED panel that uses a normal glass substrate. The drive circuit was formed by low-temperature polysilicon TFTs. Also, low-molecular organic EL materials were employed. The pixel count of the display is 480 × 272. The contrast ratio is 100,000:1, and the luminance is 200 cd/m2. The colour reproduction range is 100% of the NTSC standard.

At the Consumer Electronics Show (CES) in January , Samsung demonstrated a laptop computer with a large, transparent OLED display featuring up to 40% transparency[188] and an animated OLED display in a photo ID card.[189]

Samsung's AMOLED smartphones used their Super AMOLED trademark, with the Samsung Wave S and Samsung i Galaxy S being launched in June . In January , Samsung announced their Super AMOLED Plus displays, which offer several advances over the older Super AMOLED displays: real stripe matrix (50% more sub pixels), thinner form factor, brighter image and an 18% reduction in energy consumption.[190]

At CES , Samsung introduced the first 55" TV screen that uses Super OLED technology.[191]

On 8 January , at CES Samsung unveiled a unique curved 4K Ultra S9 OLED television, which they state provides an "IMAX-like experience" for viewers.[192]

On 13 August , Samsung announced availability of a 55-inch curved OLED TV (model KN55S9C) in the US at a price point of $.99.[193]

On 6 September , Samsung launched its 55-inch curved OLED TV (model KE55S9C) in the United Kingdom with John Lewis.[194]

Samsung introduced the Galaxy Round smartphone in the Korean market in October . The device features a p screen, measuring 5.7 inches (14 cm), that curves on the vertical axis in a rounded case. The corporation has promoted the following advantages: A new feature called "Round Interaction" that allows users to look at information by tilting the handset on a flat surface with the screen off, and the feel of one continuous transition when the user switches between home screens.[195]

Samsung released a new line of OLED TVs in , its first using the technology since .[196] They use panels sourced from Samsung Display; previously, LG was the sole manufacturer of OLED panels for TVs.[197]

Sony

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The Sony CLIÉ PEG-VZ90 was released in , being the first PDA to feature an OLED screen.[198] Other Sony products to feature OLED screens include the MZ-RH1 portable minidisc recorder, released in [199] and the Walkman X Series.[200]

At the , Las Vegas Consumer Electronics Show (CES), Sony showcased a 11-inch (28 cm), (resolution 960×540) and 27-inch (69 cm), full HD resolution at × OLED TV models.[201] Both claimed 1,000,000:1 contrast ratios and total thicknesses (including bezels) of 5 mm. In April , Sony announced it would manufacture 11-inch (28 cm) OLED TVs per month for market testing purposes.[202] On 1 October , Sony announced that the 11-inch (28 cm) model XEL-1, was the first commercial OLED TV[36] and it was released in Japan in December .[203]

In May , Sony publicly unveiled a video of a 2.5-inch (6.4 cm) flexible OLED screen which is only 0.3 millimeters thick.[204] At the Display exhibition, Sony demonstrated a 0.2 mm thick 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) display with a resolution of 320×200 pixels and a 0.3 mm thick 11-inch (28 cm) display with 960×540 pixels resolution, one-tenth the thickness of the XEL-1.[205][206]

In July , a Japanese government body said it would fund a joint project of leading firms, which is to develop a key technology to produce large, energy-saving organic displays. The project involves one laboratory and 10 companies including Sony Corp. NEDO said the project was aimed at developing a core technology to mass-produce 40 inch or larger OLED displays in the late s.[207]

In October , Sony published results of research it carried out with the Max Planck Institute over the possibility of mass-market bending displays, which could replace rigid LCDs and plasma screens. Eventually, bendable, see-through displays could be stacked to produce 3D images with much greater contrast ratios and viewing angles than existing products.[208]

Sony exhibited a 24.5" (62 cm) prototype OLED 3D television during the Consumer Electronics Show in January .[209]

In January , Sony announced the PlayStation Vita handheld game console (the successor to the PSP) will feature a 5-inch OLED screen.[210]

On 17 February , Sony announced its 25" (63.5 cm) OLED Professional Reference Monitor aimed at the Cinema and high end Drama Post Production market.[211]

On 25 June , Sony and Panasonic announced a joint venture for creating low cost mass production OLED televisions by .[212] Sony unveiled its first OLED TV since at CES called A1E. It revealed two other models in one at CES called A8F and other a Master Series TV called A9F. At CES they unveiled another two models one the A8G and the other another Bravia Series TV called A9G. Then, at CES , they revealed the A8H, which was effectively an A9G in terms of picture quality but with some compromises due to its lower cost. At the same event, they also revealed a 48-inch version of the A9G, making this its smallest OLED TV since the XEL-1.[213][214][215][216]

LG

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On 9 April , LG acquired Kodak's OLED business and started to utilize white OLED technology.[217][218] As of , LG Electronics produced one model of OLED television, the 15-inch (38 cm) 15EL[219] and had announced a 31-inch (79 cm) OLED 3D television for March .[220] On 26 December , LG officially announced the "world's largest 55-inch (140 cm) OLED panel" and featured it at CES .[221] In late , LG announces the launch of the 55EM OLED television in Australia.[222]

In January , LG Display signed a long-term agreement with Universal Display Corporation for the supply of OLED materials and the right to use their patented OLED emitters.[223]

As of , LG produces the worlds largest OLED TV, at 97 inches.[224][225]

Mitsubishi

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Lumiotec is the first company in the world developing and selling, since January , mass-produced OLED lighting panels with such brightness and long lifetime. Lumiotec is a joint venture of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, ROHM, Toppan Printing, and Mitsui & Co. On 1 June , Mitsubishi Electric installed a 6-meter OLED 'sphere' in Tokyo's Science Museum.[226]

Recom Group

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On 6 January , Los Angeles-based technology company Recom Group introduced the first small screen consumer application of the OLED at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas. This was a 2.8" (7 cm) OLED display being used as a wearable video name tag.[227] At the Consumer Electronics Show in , Recom Group introduced the world's first video mic flag incorporating three 2.8" (7 cm) OLED displays on a standard broadcaster's mic flag. The video mic flag allowed video content and advertising to be shown on a broadcasters standard mic flag.[228]

Dell

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On 6 January , Dell announced the Ultrasharp UPQ OLED monitor at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas.[229] The monitor was announced to feature a 30-inch (76 cm) 4K UHD OLED panel with a 120 Hz refresh rate, 0.1 millisecond response time, and a contrast ratio of 400,000:1. The monitor was set to sell at a price of $4,999 and release in March, , just a few months later. As the end of March rolled around, the monitor was not released to the market and Dell did not speak on reasons for the delay. Reports suggested that Dell canceled the monitor as the company was unhappy with the image quality of the OLED panel, especially the amount of color drift that it displayed when you viewed the monitor from the sides.[230] On 13 April , Dell finally released the UPQ OLED monitor to the market at a price of $3,499 ($1,500 less than its original spoken price of $4,999 at CES ). In addition to the price drop, the monitor featured a 60 Hz refresh rate and a contrast ratio of 1,000,000:1. As of June, , the monitor is no longer available to purchase from Dell's website.

Apple

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Apple began using OLED panels in its watches in and in its laptops in with the introduction of an OLED touchbar to the MacBook Pro.[231] In , Apple announced the introduction of their tenth anniversary iPhone X with their own optimized OLED display licensed from Universal Display Corporation.[232] With the exception of the iPhone SE line, iPhone XR and iPhone 11, all iPhones released since then have also featured OLED displays. In , Apple announced the 7th generation iPad Pro, which featured a "tandem OLED"[233] panel in an attempt to increase the panel's brightness.

Nintendo

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A third model of Nintendo's Switch, a hybrid gaming system, features an OLED panel in place of the original model's LCD panel. Announced in the summer of , it was released on 8 October .[234]

Research

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In , Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation (MCC), a subsidiary of Mitsubishi Chemical Holdings, developed an OLED panel with a 30,000-hour life, twice that of conventional OLED panels.[235]

The search for efficient OLED materials has been extensively supported by simulation methods; it is possible to calculate important properties computationally, independent of experimental input,[236][237] making materials development cheaper.

On 18 October , Samsung showed of their research roadmap at their Samsung OLED Forum. This included Fingerprint on Display (FoD), Under Panel Sensor (UPS), Haptic on Display (HoD) and Sound on Display (SoD).[238]

Various venders are also researching cameras under OLEDs (Under Display Cameras). According to IHS Markit Huawei has partnered with BOE, Oppo with China Star Optoelectronics Technology (CSOT), Xiaomi with Visionox.[239]

In , researchers at the Queensland University of Technology (QUT) proposed using human hair which is a source of carbon and nitrogen to create OLED displays.[240]

See also

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Notes

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1. ^

   The energy absorbed by a material is released in the form of photons. Generally these photons contain the same or less energy than those initially absorbed. This effect is how LEDs create light.

References

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Further reading

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The best OLED TVs on the market today deliver beautiful image quality thanks to the self-lighting pixels that define this technology. What these pixels deliver are stunningly deep black tones and incredibly precise contrast between light and dark areas, in a way that LED or mini-LED TVs simply cannot match. Read our 'What is OLED?' guide for more on why this tech is such a big upgrade, and so sought-after.

The best OLED TVs include a lot of models that rank among the best TVs overall, and come from the biggest TV brands, such as LG and Sony. Even Samsung &#; a TV company that had rejected OLED for years, has not only joined the party, but makes our top-ranked OLED! Now that's an entrance.

We've been testing TVs since long before the first 4K OLEDs made it to market, watching the technology get better, more popular and more affordable over the years. This guide is based on our own testing and reviews of these products, comparing them to each other, and regular LED or mini-LED TVs you can find at the same prices. We're judging them based not just on picture quality, but also the features they offer, and how that balances with the price.

Recent updates

Today's best OLED TVs, as chosen by our reviewers

Why you can trust TechRadar We spend hours testing every product or service we review, so you can be sure you&#;re buying the best. Find out more about how we test.

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1-minute summary: I've seen a lot of most elite TVs in the world come through our testing rooms, and had the chance to compare them side-by-side, and last year's Samsung S90C still stands up against them when it comes to features and picture quality &#; but it's now around half the price it was before, and it may be the best value you can get from a TV today. It uses QD-OLED technology that's brighter than other OLED TVs at the same price, and delivers detail and deep, nuanced black tones that are up there with anything else I've seen to date. Its gaming features are fantastic, including 4K 120Hz support on all four HDMI ports, and great game-friendly options. It even sounds better than the competition at the same price, and I think you can get away without needing a soundbar (though a good one will still improve on what it offers). Basically, this thing is a dream for movies, fantastic for gaming, sounds great, and is a bargain for its price in . That's why it remains our top pick, even though newer models have now been released. 

Read our full Samsung S90C review

Recommended by

Recommended by

Matt Bolton

Managing Editor, Entertainment

Reasons to buy

&#; You want the best value OLED: The S90C gives brilliant QD-OLED performance that's brighter than other OLEDs, at a more reasonable price than the elite models.

&#; You have a lot of connectivity needs: The S90C carries great gaming support including 4K at 144Hz on all HDMI ports, with VRR, and Samsung's Game hub.

&#; You want better-than-average built-in sound: A soundbar will beat the S90C's audio, but unlike most TVs, the sound here is good enough that you don't need one.

Reasons to avoid

&#; You want the full QD-OLED experience: The S90C doesn't have quite the brightness of the S95D, and lacks its fantastic anti-glare feature.

&#; You need the best smart TV platform: Although improved, the Tizen OS from Samsung could still use some work when it comes to simplicity of use.

&#; You want all the spec boxes ticked: With no Dolby Vision HDR or IMAX certification, this lacks a couple of notes. But it doesn't really need them.

Show full expert analysis &#;

In-depth analysis

Picture quality

5 / 5

The brighter-than-average QD-OLED screen (we measured it at 1,100 nits in a 10% HDR window) of the S90C is the source of its magic, with the extra brightness providing noticeably more HDR punch than other OLED TVs at the same price, but also improving its colors, "giving them a purity in the lightest parts of the picture that&#;s a joy to behold", as we said in our review. At the same time, dark tones are as inky and delicate as you'd expect from an OLED TV, with pixel-perfect contrast that's truly cinematic. We also praised the clear-yet-natural sharpness of the S90C, its wide viewing angles, and its upscaling of non-4K video. We only had a complaint about its motion handling, which we found to be a little too smooth for 24fps movies out of the box, but it was easily fixed in the picture settings. While higher-priced OLED TVs can offer an even brighter experience, you have to pay a lot more for it &#; and if viewing in a dark room, the more gentle brightness of the S90C may be preferable anyway.

Sound quality

4.5 / 5

Samsung has included its Object Tracking Sound system here, which uses speakers placed around the edges of the display to create impressive positioning of sounds to match what's happening on-screen, and generally creating great width and height to the sound compared to almost any other TV. The speakers are also clear and impactful, handling both dialogue and explosions well. We noted in our review that "bass depths are limited and low-frequency sounds don&#;t seem to project as well from the TV&#;s bodywork as its mid-range and treble sounds", but that's no surprise. The S90C is just about as good as TVs get for sound at its price, and sounds better than LG's rival TVs.

Smart TV & Menus

3.5 / 5

Samsung's Tizen smart TV software comes with access to all the major streaming services you could want, but we don't think its fullscreen interface is quite as intuitive and user-friendly as the webOS system used on LG TVs, or compared to something like Roku. However, it's comprehensive and performs well, and the voice control is very strong and can help you avoid some of the less helpful menu layouts completely.

Gaming

4.5 / 5

With four HDMI 2.1 ports, including full 4K 120Hz and variable refresh rate (VRR) support on all four ports, the Samsung S90C is a connectivity dream for gaming. You can have as many next-gen consoles hooked up as your budget can take, and get full performance from them. Well, nearly&#; the only thing missing is Dolby Vision gaming, but that's because the S90C doesn't support Dolby Vision HDR of any kind. It's a shame, but it's not like gaming on here looks anything less than stunning anyway. We measured the input lag of the S90C at just 9.2ms, which is effectively imperceptible, and Samsung's Game Bar makes it easy to switch rapidly between different features, depending on the game you're playing.

Value

5 / 5

After price drops, it's common to find the 55-inch Samsung S90C for around $1,299 / £999 / AU$1,599 &#; this is around half its launch price, and you'll find nothing else that's so refined in the contrast, so bright, so feature-packed, and so good-sounding for this price. You'll find TVs that can do one or two of these things, just not all. The S90C is the complete package, and while it isn't cheap, it is literally unbeaten for value in in the opinion of our reviewers and editors.

Samsung S90C test results

The best budget OLED TV

(Image credit: Future)

1-minute summary: Before I tested the LG B3, I was skeptical of what it could offer compared to more premium rivals, given that it's an 'entry-level' OLED. However, I was happily proven wrong. While it may not carry the brightness of more premium OLED TVs, it still delivers stunning colors, deep black levels and fantastic contrast that mean every picture looks great. It's also no slouch when it comes to gaming, with 4K 120Hz, VRR, ALLM and Dolby Vision gaming all supported on two HDMI 2.1 ports. Initially, the B3 was priced agonizingly close to the brighter LG C3, but as time has moved, the B3's prices have dropped and it now provides a clearly more affordable route into OLED, without sacrificing a great deal in features or performance. I was so blown away by what the B3 could do for its price that I called it "the dark-horse OLED TV of ". Cut to and still believe that to be the case, since the price has only dropped further. If you want to get into OLED on a smaller budget, this is how to do it.

Read our full LG B3 review

Recommended by

Recommended by

James Davidson

Staff Writer, TV Hardware

Reasons to buy

&#; You want OLED on a budget: The LG B3 provides an entry-level price point into OLED TV without any major sacrifices to performance or features.

&#; You want a great gaming TV: With stellar gaming performance and and equally stellar picture, the B3 is a superb choice for gamers on a budget. 

&#; You want a great picture for the price: The B3&#;s powerful contrast and vivid color reproduction rivals more premium OLED TVs on the market.

Reasons to avoid

&#; You don&#;t want to use a soundbar: The B3&#;s sound is just average at best, and most of its sound modes have an uneven quality.

&#; You want total gaming flexibility: You only get two HDMI 2.1 ports with 4K 120Hz support here &#; the Samsung S90C or newer LG B4 have four HDMI 2.1 ports. 

&#; You want the brightest OLED: The B3 has clearly lower brightness levels compared to more premium models, such as the LG C4 and Samsung S90C.

Show full expert analysis &#;

In-depth analysis

Picture quality

4.5 / 5

It may only have the more basic kind of OLED panel that doesn't hit the brightness levels of more premium options (we measured the B3's HDR peak brightness at 649 nits in Standard mode on a 10% window, while the Samsung S90C at #1 in this list hit 1,110 nits in the same test), but what the B3 does with this panel is still magic. We admired the consistently deep black levels mixed with rich contrast, so darker pictures are accurate and yet balance beautifully with vibrant HDR colors. These carry both a punchiness and a natural tone, which means brighter scenes also thrive, although we noted that it favors a cooler color palette (ie, a little more blue mixed into its white tones than most other TVs here). It may not have QD-OLED, like the Samsung S90C, or Micro lens array (MLA) tech, like the LG G3, to help boost its HDR highlights and brightness, but the B3's overall picture quality means it put up a fight against higher-end OLEDs and as we said in our review "it's nothing short of superb". However, you will get a clear step up in color richness and dynamic range if you go for the more expensive models.

Sound quality

3.5 / 5

Sound is unfortunately one of the B3's weaker points. With a limited 2.0 speaker array, it can only do so much. While we commended its bass levels, speech was lacking in any of its preset sound modes, struggling to find its place over the rest of the mix. Despite Dolby Atmos support, a lack of directional speakers means its 3D reproduction is almost non-existent. There is an AI Sound mode available which improves nearly all elements, including speech, but it sacrifices bass to do so. Some may find the B3's sound serviceable &#; as we said in our review "it gives decent enough audio performance" &#; but a soundbar is still recommended to get sound to match the quality of the B3's picture. 

Smart TV & Menus

4.5 / 5

Equipped with LG's own webOS smart TV platform, the B3 benefits from the re-designed webOS 23, which features a tidier home screen with less intrusive ads, and a new Quick Cards feature that makes app organization a breeze. Thanks to the built-in Alpha7 Gen 6 Processor, performance is also smooth making navigation nice and easy. Easily one of the best smart TV platforms out there, and with support for all the major streaming services.

Gaming

4.5 / 5

Nearly everything a gamer needs can be found on the B3, with 4K 120Hz, VRR (both AMD FreeSync and Nvidia G-Sync are here), Auto Low Latency Mode, and Dolby Vision gaming supported. It also features LG's Game Optimizer, which allows you to tailor its options easily to suit you, and when its Boost mode is activated, it reduces the B3's input lag time from the 12.9ms we initially measured to a low 9.2ms. The B3 also shows off its gaming prowess with excellent performance, making light work of graphically intense sequences, as we found playing Battlefield V on Xbox Series X. Unfortunately, only two of its four HDMI ports are HDMI 2.1, meaning those with multiple consoles and a soundbar will struggle for connectivity space. However, this is the only real downside to an otherwise excellent gaming TV.

Value

4.5 / 5

Upon release, the B3 was priced too close to its more premium sibling, the LG C3, and it struggled to demonstrate its value. Thankfully, prices quickly fell and the LG B3 offered a suitable entry-level option into OLED. The B3 has found itself a regular fixture during sales events like Prime Day, with the 65-inch B3 falling as low as $1,199 / £1,099 &#; a lot cheaper than the Samsung S90C's offer of $1,499 / £1,399 during Prime Day . While other, more premium OLEDs may offer more brightness and a few more features, not many can match the value of the B3 and its affordable OLED price. 

LG B3 test results

The best premium OLED TV

(Image credit: Future)

1-minute summary: The Samsung S95D, with its brighter, anti-reflective QD-OLED screen, was the TV I wast most eager to get in our testing rooms to see if it lived up to the hype &#; and boy did it. Its most impressive feature was that new OLED Glare Free anti-reflection tech, which solved OLED's major problem with reflections. Even with overhead lights turned up, the S95D's picture was prominent and visible. Thankfully, it also maintained the spectacular picture quality I've come to know from high-end QD-OLEDs, meaning dazzling brightness and dynamic color balanced with rich black levels. It's also an accomplished gaming TV, with four fully kitted out HDMI 2.1 ports with all the gaming greatness you need: 4K 144Hz, VRR, ALLM. The Game Hub means its easy to choose your settings, and it performs incredibly. It also looks beautiful with a floating stand design that gives it a clean, almost futuristic appearance, and connections hidden away in a separate box. This all comes at a premium price, but if you can stretch your budget, it's so worth it, and it's why I feel the S95D is the standard bearer for TVs in . 

Read our full Samsung S95D review

Recommended by

Recommended by

James Davidson

Staff Writer, TV Hardware

Reasons to buy

&#; You want an OLED fit for all rooms: With OLED Glare Free anti-reflection tech, the S95D's impeccable picture can be viewed in the brightest of rooms.

&#; You want the premium QD-OLED experience: Balancing contrast and brightness to near-perfection, the S95D is premium OLED defined. 

&#; You want an OLED that looks premium: A trim profile, razor-thin depth and a 'floating' design make the S95D easily one of the best-looking TVs around. 

Reasons to avoid

&#; You want full HDR support: Despite covering nearly all the bases, the S95D does not support Dolby Vision HDR. We're fine with that, though, given its performance.

&#; You don't want to fiddle with Filmmaker Mode: Other OLEDs' Filmmaker Modes don't need tweaking, but the S95D's does to limit black crush. 

&#; You're on a budget: Elite performance does unfortunately come with an elite price tag, and the S95D sits near the top of the premium end of the OLED market. 

Show full expert analysis &#;

In-depth analysis

Picture quality

5 / 5

We described the S95D's picture quality as "its absolute highlight" in our review, thanks to its new-gen QD-OLED screen that hits high brightness levels. We measured it at 1,868 nits on a 10% window in Standard mode (besting the LG G3's 1,449 peak brightness in the same tests) and providing stunning, rich contrast with beautifully deep black levels. We also said in our review that thanks to some new AI enhancements "textures are ultra-realistic &#; never has an OLED TV looked more detailed" as everything from object detailing to people's skin tones had a real lifelike quality. It also doesn't shy away from displaying bold, dynamic colors that jump from the screen, but it's the S95D's anti-reflection tech that we think steals the show, solving OLEDs' age-old problem with pesky reflections, due to the low full-screen brightness of OLED &#; this TV is comfortable and visible wherever you put it. Despite a lack of Dolby Vision HDR support and some black crush in the odd dark scene, we said that "This is what OLEDs should strive to be" and a lot of that stems from the S95D's spectacular picture. 

Sound quality

4 / 5

Built-in sound can be a tricky area for TVs and although the S95D's isn't perfect, it's very effective. Object Tracking Sound+ (OTS+) means sound and the action on screen are connected "flawlessly", as we said in our review. We also praised its punchy bass levels, which had plenty of power and heft to suit the most chaotic action scenes despite its thin design. Dialogue is also clear throughout, regardless of what you're watching. Unfortunately, we found the S95D's soundstage to be limited compared to TVs with better sound, such as the Sony A80L, but most people will be pleased it with overall. You may not need a soundbar, though we think the S95D's picture deserves one that offers equally epic audio if you can. 

Smart TV & Menus

4 / 5

Although Tizen hasn't seen as many significant upgrades as other smart TV platforms, such as LG's webOS, it's still solid overall. Its different hubs for Daily+, Game and Smart Things make navigation and organization smoother and more customizable that previous Samsung TVs. While the number of recommendations on its home menus can make it feel a little cluttered, it's still a good smart TV platform that most people will find easy to use, and has basically every streaming service you could want on board.

Gaming

5 / 5

The S95D carries pretty much everything we look for in a gaming TV: four HDMI 2.1 ports that support 4K, 144Hz, variable refresh rate including AMD FreeSync Premium Pro, HGiG HDR, auto low latency mode, and a great load of cloud gaming options from Xbox, Nvidia GeForce Now, Luna and more. Its ultra-low input lag time, which we measured at 8.9ms, means gaming itself is smooth, fast paced and responsive during any game, including graphically intense FPS games. Although it may be a little on the pricey side for some, we said the S95D is "a gamer's dream TV" and with all these features and its incredible performance, it's an unforgettable premium gaming experience. 

Value

4 / 5

Value was one area where the S95D was always going to have to work hard, because it is pricey. For a 65-inch, you're looking at spending $3,099 / £2,899 / AU$4,495, which sits at the very top of the OLED TV market alongside the LG G4, which is priced at $2,999 / £2,699 / AU$5,295. However, we think it more than justifies its price with the performance it delivers and the features it carries, and prices are already falling on the S95D despite only being out for a few months, and its likely to be on sale during sales events like Black Friday. But, make no mistake - this elite TV comes at a price.

Samsung S95D test results

The best OLED TV for sizes

(Image credit: Future)

1-minute summary: I&#;ve reviewed both the LG C4 OLED TV and its predecessor, the LG C3, and the new model provides a tangible performance upgrade. A new Alpha 9 AI Gen 7 processor with a Brightness Booster feature is largely responsible for the picture quality step-up, yielding improved brightness along with better HDR handling and color detail. The C4 series is available in a wide range of sizes &#; from 42 inches up to 83 inches &#; which makes it an ideal option for everything from desktop gaming to home theater. I enjoyed watching movies on the C4 and particularly appreciated its new Dolby Vision Filmmaker Mode picture preset, which makes the viewing experience plug-and-play. It&#;s also a gaming powerhouse, with four HDMI 2.1 ports with 4K 120Hz pass-through, VRR, and ALLM. LG OLED TVs for are also the first to be 144Hz certified by Nvidia, making them perfect for PC as well as console gaming. Whether it&#;s for gaming, movies, or anything else, the LG C4 is a great all-purpose TV that&#;s more affordable than premium OLED models such as the LG G4 and Samsung S95D &#; however it doesn't knock the Samsung S90C off our #1 spot because it offers basically the same levels of brightness with generally the same features, but is more expensive, as a newer model.

Read our full LG C4 review

Recommended by

Recommended by

Al Griffin

Senior Editor, Home Entertainment

Reasons to buy

&#; You want a versatile OLED TV: With a vivid, detailed picture, great gaming features and an array of sizes, the C4 covers a lot of bases. 

&#; You want an ideal TV for movies: With improved contrast and detail and a new Dolby Vision Filmmaker Mode, the C4 is perfect for movies.  

&#; You want a great gaming TV: The C4's impressive picture extends to games, and its four HDMI 2.1 ports have a suite of features to enhance console and PC gaming.

Reasons to avoid

&#; You need the best built-in audio: The C4's audio doesn't live up to the same level of its picture quality &#; the Samsung S90C or Sony A80L are better.

&#; You want the brightest OLED available: While the C4 is much brighter than LG B3 or Sony A80L, the more premium Samsung S95D offers higher brightness still. 

&#; You want the least expensive OLED: LG's new B3 OLED TV doesn't come in as many sizes, but it's available at a lower price than the C4 &#; as does the new LG B4.

Show full expert analysis &#;

In-depth analysis

Picture quality

4.5 / 5

We measured the LG C4&#;s peak HDR brightness at 1,065 nits &#; a substantial boost over last year&#;s C3 and only slightly below the Samsung S90C OLED TV that sits at the top of our list as the best option for most people. This brightness increase helps to bring out the full range of detail in 4K movies with HDR and also makes colors look "startingly vivid", as we said in our review. OLED TVs generally excel at delivering deep and detailed shadows, and the C4 more than holds its own in that regard. The picture on OLED TVs also looks uniform over a wide viewing angle, and that quality will benefit larger C4 screen sizes when watching with a large group.

Sound quality

4 / 5

The LG C4 can upmix basic movie and TV soundtracks for a virtual 9.1.2-channel Dolby Atmos presentation &#; but still only from a limited set of speakers. In our review, we found dialogue on the C4 to be clear and that there was also a good degree of spaciousness when the TV&#;s AI Sound Pro mode was active. Bass is constrained, making a soundbar a recommended option. If you do go that route, the C4 has several features designed to work specifically with LG soundbars, including Wow Orchestra, which combines the TV&#;s built-in audio with the soundbar&#;s speakers, and Wow Cast, which transmits lossless Dolby Atmos soundtracks wirelessly from the TV to the soundbar. Basically, the built-in sound here is clear, but doesn't match the scale of the pictures fully.

Smart TV & Menus

4.5 / 5

LG&#;s webOS 24 smart TV interface on the C4 has a streamlined look, with a prominently featured Quick Cards section that makes it easy to see options for storing apps and accessing settings in the Games, Music, Home Hub, Sports, and Home Office categories. There are also content recommendations, although a fair number of these are meant to steer you to the LG Channels free ad-supported TV portal. A customizable Quick Menu lets you easily access picture and sound settings, or anything else you want to be just a quick button press away, and there&#;s even a chatbot available to help you diagnose and solve any issues with the TV.

Gaming

5 / 5

The LG C4 has comprehensive gaming support. Its four HDMI 2.1 ports support 4K 120Hz, Nvidia G-Sync, AMD FreeSync, and 4K Dolby Vision gaming, and the C4 is among the first TVs to be 144Hz-certified by Nvidia. Cloud gaming is also covered on the C4, with GeForce Now, Amazon Luna, Utomik, Blacknut, and Boosteroid apps all available in the Gaming Quick Card. When the TV detects a connected gaming console, it conveniently switches into Game Optimizer mode, which enables an impressive 9.2ms input lag (in Boost mode) and also provides a game menu for making on-the-fly adjustments.

Value

4.5 / 5

At $1,999.99 / £1,899 / AU$3,299 officially for a 55-inch model, the LG C4 isn&#;t exactly cheap, though we&#;ve already seen it drop considerably lower in Prime Day sales. If you value the picture quality advantages that OLED TVs bring to the table &#; and if you&#;re a movie fan or gamer, you should &#; then the C4 is a mid-range TV well worth considering, especially since it&#;s available for much less than more premium options. Considering the quality you get, it's a great investment in future-proof TV that you'll be happy with for a long time.

LG C4 test results

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The best OLED TV for sound

(Image credit: Future)

1-minute summary: Sony's TVs come at a more premium price than equivalent OLED models from Samsung and LG, which means they can be a bit of a harder sell when it comes to bang for your buck &#; but the Sony A80L has an audio ace up its sleeve. Sony uses tech that vibrates the screen panel itself to create sound, and this enables fantastic clarity and accurate positioning of the sound to match what's happening on-screen, while a woofer in the back provides depth. It's all a step beyond the sound quality of the competition (even the good audio of the Samsung S90C) and means you don't need a dedicated soundbar unless you want to go really big. Sony's image quality is absolutely captivating and beautifully refined too, and in a dark room I rate it as a real connoisseur's choice &#; but this TV is less bright than the Samsung S90C or LG C4 by quite a long way, and only has HDMI 2.1 gaming support on two of its four ports. So our reviewers view it as a less versatile option for pictures and gaming than the other TVs here &#; but if you want the best built-in sound and still gorgeous images, it's my pick.

Read our full Sony A80L review

Recommended by

Recommended by

Matt Bolton

Managing Editor, Entertainment

Reasons to buy

&#; You want an OLED TV that&#;s great for movies: The A80L&#;s clean and nuanced 4K picture, along with its refined colors and detailed shadows, are ideal for movies. 

&#; You don&#;t want to use a soundbar: The Sony&#;s screen itself acts as a reasonably full-sounding speaker and can place sound effects to track onscreen action.

&#; You want to make the most of a PS5: This is a 'Perfect for PS5' TV, with some unique features for PS5 users, including better HDR support.

Reasons to avoid

&#; You'll watch in a bright room: The middling brightness of the A80L&#;s picture won&#;t stand up to bright room viewing &#; the Samsung S90C or LG C4 are better bets. 

&#; You want the most versatile gaming TV: The A80L has good overall gaming performance, but only two of its HDMI ports supper 4K 120Hz VRR. 

&#; You want the best value: The A80L is priced higher than the Samsung S90C, but is less bright, and has the limited gaming connectivity mentioned above.

Show full expert analysis &#;

In-depth analysis

Picture quality

4.5 / 5

Sony's OLED TV can't deliver stunning images using giant brightness levels, so it has to rely on good ol' fashioned quality, and it's got that in spades. As we said in our review: "running the A80L side by side with a number of other key mid-range rivals, including the LG C3, sees Sony&#;s set producing pictures that look more richly textured, crisper, denser, more three-dimensional and more refined". That's thanks to its superb work with nuanced contrast, its excellent sharpening and upscaling that never goes beyond what feels natural, and color handling that we described as "mesmerizingly precise". At least, this is all true if you avoid the horrible Vivid mode. If you're watching in a dark, light-controlled room, the Sony A80L's pictures are positively cinematic&#; including the fact that they're not very bright. Yes, you will notice a clear improvement in HDR punch and wow-inducing contrast from the also-mid-range LG C4, let alone the high-end Samsung S95D. For comparison, the Sony A80L hits 675 nits of peak brightness in a 10% HDR window, while the LG C4 hits 1,065 nits, and the Samsung S95D hits 1,688 nits. Yes, that's over 50% improvement from the LG, and well over double (nearly triple!) for the Samsung. And the fullscreen brightness measurements (important for sports in lit rooms) is a similar gulf &#; 50% higher from the LG, and well over double from the Samsung. These other TVs will hold up better in rooms where you might watch sport or play games during the day while sunlight floods in, no question. But for pure movie magic in a home theater room, the A80L is outstanding.

Sound quality

4.5 / 5

This is obviously why we've chosen this TV in this guide, and for its price, nothing sounds better. In our review, we praised the "sound that emerges directly from the TV, creating a more direct and powerful effect than most TVs that use down-firing, rear- or side-mounted speakers", and that is also "able to go surprisingly loud without succumbing to any distortion or crackling". You simply get more clarity and scale to the sound here than its rivals, especially the LG C4 or LG G3 &#; and it's better than the Samsung S90C, though that model is closer to the Sony than the LG's for scale. But it's not just about that &#; Sony's system of using the screen itself to generate the sound means that the audio is "almost uncannily accurately connected to the onscreen action", as we said in our review. We added that "it&#;s startling how much this direct sound effect placement enhances your sense of involvement in what you&#;re watching &#; especially if the TV is receiving a Dolby Atmos soundtrack". This is the kind of thing we usually say about soundbars and not built-in TV speakers, and it's why we've picked this TV here.

Smart TV & Menus

3.5 / 5

Google TV is used here, which is second to none when it comes to presenting you with streaming app options, so you'll have no trouble watching whatever you want. However, while Google TV is very attractive, it's not quite as intuitive as some rivals, including the latest version of LG's webOS, and is a little less effective at recommending useful things you might want to watch. But it's comprehensive and it's certainly not difficult to find things on it &#; well, with the possible exception of the picture adjustment menus, though Sony sensibly provided a 'gear' button on the remote control that opens this straight up, so we appreciate that.

Gaming

4 / 5

The Sony A80L is equipped with some very tempting gaming features, but it's not quite a total win. The good news is that it's a 'Perfect for PlayStation' TV, which means it supports some special PS5-friendly features, including superior HDR mapping (an advantage for its low-brightness screen) and auto-switching to different gaming modes depending on your genre of game. But for any console, it supports 4K at up to 120Hz on two of its four HDMI ports, and has Sony's Game Menu so you can tweak its game-friendly settings. However, we measured its input lag at 16.5ms, which is close to double the 9.8ms we get from Samsung and LG. Not a big deal for most players, but a disappointment to the most hardcore.

Value

4 / 5

Available for a higher price than the Samsung S90C, but with lower brightness levels and less flexibility in its gaming connectivity, the Sony A80L is obviously not as strong value as that model. However, because its sound is so good, it may mean you don't need to add a soundbar (as we would recommend you do with some other mid-range OLEDs), giving it higher value points. And it has those unique features for PS5 users that may also make it better value for Sony loyalists. But we certainly think the S90C delivers more bang for buck overall.

Sony A80L test results

The best OLED TV for wall mounting

(Image credit: Future)

6. LG G3

Top-tier picture quality with a special zero-gap wall mount

Our expert review:

Specifications

Screen size:

55, 65, 77, and 83 inches

Resolution:

4K

Panel type:

OLED (Micro Lens Array)

Smart TV:

webOS 23

HDR:

Dolby Vision, HDR10, HLG

1-minute summary: The LG G3 was nothing short of dazzling and when I tested it; I was seriously impressed by just how many bases it covered. Its incredible picture quality was led by its rich contrast and brightness that are among the best in class, while also maintaining a very natural look. It's also a superb choice for gamers, with everything console owners will love &#; 4K 120Hz, VRR and more on all four ports &#; and putting in some serious input lag performance. However, I think the Samsung S95D does all of this even better &#; but for those who want to wall-mount, the G3 has an extra ace up its sleeve. An included, zero-gap wall mount mean it can hang tight to the wall, giving it a much more premium look to match its higher-end price tag. It's an excellent jack-of-all-trades TV that is destined to take pride of place on your wall.

Read our full LG G3 review

Recommended by

Recommended by

James Davidson

Staff Writer, TV Hardware

Reasons to buy

&#; You want a beautiful wall-mounted TV: The premium, slim design combines with a special wall-mount that leaves no gap between the TV and the wall.

&#; You're sick of reflections ruining your viewing: The G3's anti-reflective screen combines with its brighter MLA OLED panel to help you see better in bright rooms.

&#; You want a premium OLED gaming TV: Dolby Vision gaming, 4K 120Hz, VRR, ALLM, four HDMI 2.1 ports &#; the G3 has it all and the performance to match.

Reasons to avoid

&#; You want your TV on a stand: You'll need to buy a separate stand if wall mounting won't suit your home &#; this would make the Samsung options better value.

&#; You want HDR10+ support: The LG G3 supports all other HDR formats, but you won't find HDR10+ functionality here.

&#; You want the best built-in sound: This is far weaker than its picture, with the Samsung and Sony options here all easily beating it.

Show full expert analysis &#;

In-depth analysis

Picture quality

5 / 5

With the combination of Micro Lens Array (MLA) tech, LG's OLED Evo panel and a powerful processor, the LG G3's picture quality is "nothing short of spectacular" as described in our review. Blending stunning black levels and contrast with bold colors, the G3 also proved that high brightness can be achieved by non-Samsung OLEDs (we measured its peak brightness at 1,449 nits on a 10% window, which was the highest we tested from the range of TVs) and although the Samsung S95D has passed it now, it's still a suitably bright TV that can handle well-lit viewing environments thanks to some good reflection reduction tech &#; we noted in our review that the G3 was "extremely impressive in how well it handled the bright testing facility lights". We loved the G3's picture quality and honestly couldn't find much at fault &#; and it's why its among the best OLED TVs still. 

Sound quality

4 / 5

The G3's built-in sound was good overall and while it won't rival a great soundbar, we still had a lot to praise about it. Its bass levels are suitably powerful, describing it as "thunderous" in our review and dialogue is clear no matter what you're watching. While it does have Dolby Atmos and DTS:X support, its reproduction of these was restrained and difficult to hear in action-heavy movies such as The Batman. There's an AI Sound Pro mode which adds more immersion, but we found it sound "clinical". While many people will be happy with the G3's speakers, like the Samsung S95D, we feel the G3 deserves a soundbar to match the quality of its picture.

Smart TV & Menus

4.5 / 5

LG's webOS 23 is built into the G3 as its smart TV platform, and thanks to a tidier home menu with more tailored TV show and movie recommendations and a new Quick Cards feature that makes app organization nice and easy, it's easily one of the best smart TV platforms around. It also has plenty of settings for those who like to experiment with picture and sound &#; which you can make instantly accessible, mercifully &#; and built-in hands-free voice control options as well. A user-friendly experience all around, and with pretty much unbeatable streaming app support.

Gaming

5 / 5

Gamers will be pleased with the amount of features the G3 offers, with four HDMI 2.1 ports that support 4K 120Hz, Dolby Vision gaming, variable refresh rates, and auto low latency mode. The G3 also delivers the picture and performance to match, as when we played Battlefield V during testing, we said "Panning and swapping between targets was a breeze and kept the action feeling pacy". There isn't much missing for gamers on the G3, other than 144Hz refresh rate for PC gaming, which Samsung QD-OLEDs and the LG C4 carry, so it's makes for an excellent gaming TV &#; or as we called it in our review, "a paradise". 

Value

4 / 5

Released at a premium in , the G3 has seen several big price cuts since then and you're now looking at paying roughly $1,399 / £1,399 for its 55-inch model - which is roughly what you'd pay for the newer LG C4 released in , but which is a step-down in LG's range. At this current price, it's a seriously competitive OLED TV and while it doesn't quite beat the likes of the Samsung S90C for value overall, it offers a lot at this price range &#; though remember that it comes with a wall-mount only, and not a stand!

LG G3 test results

How to choose an OLED TV

How to choose the best OLED TV for you

OLED TVs tend to be premium TVs, which means you're getting a certain level of features in almost all of them &#; they're all 4K, they're mostly 120Hz for gaming, for example, and they tend to all have four HDMI ports, and premium smart TV software.

But they're absolutely not all the same. Some are much brighter than others (around twice as bright, in some cases), some have more HDMI 2.1 ports for next-gen gaming, some have better sound systems, and they don't all come in the same size options.

It's important to consider what size TV is best for you, and to do that you'll literally need to measure the space you have to work with. Remember a TV that fills every available scrap of space in your living room might sound like a great idea, but you'll need to consider viewing angles, screen brightness and whether you'll be able to sit a decent distance from the TV to fully appreciate it. The LG C3 has the widest range of sizes of any TV we feature, so if you need something smaller, that's a great place to start.

When it comes to HDR support, we recommend mostly that people choose TVs with Dolby Vision, because it's the most commonly used advanced HDR format on the best streaming services. Samsung TVs only use HDR10+, which is similar technology, but not as well supported. It's not a dealbreaker that Samsung's TVs don't support Dolby Vision, but as you'll see in our list, we prefer sets that include it.

(Image credit: LG)

How much do OLED TVs cost?

The cost of OLED TVs varies hugely depending on what technologies are thrown in with an OLED panel, such as the resolution, processor, build quality, built-in speakers, and more. But suffice to say that entry-level models sit around (or, more recently, just under) the $1,000 / £900 / AU$1,500 mark.

More mid-tier OLEDs at larger sizes (65 inches and above) can double that figure, or triple it when you're looking at the cutting-edge high-end panels. You might also notice that you don't get that much of a lower price with the smaller 42-inch sizes of OLED TV &#; that's because making them so small relies on relatively new tech, so they're not quite such good value per inch.

Sales periods such as Prime Day or Black Friday tend to include lots of discounts on OLED TV models, though &#; especially from LG and Samsung.

Should I buy OLED or QLED?

OLED isn't the only option for savvy TV buyers. Samsung's competing QLED televisions outperform for brightness, while the introduction of Mini LED backlights has only improved peak light output and overall contrast &#; the areas that OLED generally has the upper hand with, thanks to its per-pixel brightness control.

It's a tighter race than ever, then, though it's worth assessing secondary characteristics for OLED and QLED screens. An OLED with a cheap processor may cause more artefacts and video noise, while a QLED with edge-lighting won't get the true benefit of its enhanced color and contrast. Format or feature support can be crucial if you're hooking up your TV to a PC, a games console, or a 4K Blu-ray player too.

What is the lifespan of an OLED TV?

According to LG Display, the makers of the OLED panels that go into every OLED TV on the list - around 100,000 hours. For most folks that's about 10 years of TV watching and far exceeds the 40,000 to 60,000-hour lifespans of most LED-LCD TVs. That said, OLED TVs can experience something called burn-in when a static image is left on the screen for prolonged periods of time - so be sure to change the channel every few days. 

Best OLED TV competitors: what else is out there?

OLED is, for many, the premium TV tech of the moment. Though once weighed down by inaccessible price points, a flurry of cheaper mid-range OLEDs and smaller panel sizes has helped bring OLED closer to the mass market.

Samsung and Sony's current TV lineups include QD-OLED hybrids (they combine OLED panels with quantum dot tech, utilising the self-emissive properties of the former and color enhancements of the latter) &#; we have a separate guide to whether you should buy a Samsung OLED TV, if you want to read more about them.

For those with cash to splash, you'll be choosing between a high-end OLED TV and Micro LED &#; a self-emissive panel technology that Samsung has leant into in recent times, but which has proved difficult to offer either affordably or at mainstream sizing (88-inch is the smallest we've heard about so far, as of ).

It's a more complicated picture than simply OLED, then, though for deep blacks and true-to-life color &#; at a size you can actually get into the average living room &#; OLED may still be the best choice.

Is burn-in a problem in OLED TVs?

Burn-in, also known as screen burn or permanent image retention, is a visual artefact that sometimes appears when a TV has shown the same thing in the same place for a long time. It definitely happens on some OLED TVs, but manufacturers have come up with lots of ways to minimise the likelihood of it happening to yours.

There are three main ways in which OLED TVs can minimise the likelihood of burn-in. They can use image analysis to identify static images &#; TV channel logos, for example &#; and subtly dim them. They can gently shift the image around by a few pixels, something that your OLED probably does already without you noticing it. 

And there's a more brute-force approach, where the TV automatically dulls the brightness of the whole display when it detects a bright and potentially burn-in item. That latter one is the least popular because if it isn't implemented well it can be quite dramatic and quite annoying. More modern TVs with this tech, known as ABL (Auto Brightness Limiting) are much more subtle about it than older ones.

Last but not least, you can take the DIY route. The default modes such as Vivid Mode on some TVs can be ridiculously bright, so changing them or using less blazing settings will make your eyes happy and reduce the risk of burn-in even further. 

Ultimately burn-in is all about heat, hence the name. And the best way to reduce the risk of it and perhaps eliminate it altogether is to manage heat better in OLED TVs. And manufactures are doing just that. You'll find clever heatsink technology and heat dissipation design in OLEDs from Panasonic, LG, Sony and more. 

We're not saying burn-in doesn't exist. It does. But the advances in OLED TV tech in recent years means it's much less of an issue than it was in early OLEDs, and for most of us it's something we don't really need to worry about too much.

How we test the best OLED TVs

When testing the best OLED TVs, we use the same criteria that we consider in all of our TV reviews, which focuses on picture quality, audio quality, smart TV platform, design, gaming features and value for money.  Our testing is not only  made up of subjective opinions about each of criteria, but also on objective measurements taken using specialized equipment &#; you can read our full guide to how we test TVs at TechRadar, or read on for a summary.

Using different AV sources, including broadcast, streaming and Blu-ray, we&#;ll run in every  TV whilst cycling through its picture preset modes, such as Sport, Movie and Standard, to determine which settings are the most accurate  for different types of media. We do this to determine what the best settings are for watching   movies and TV shows or a sports match for example. Once we have established which picture modes are best suited for different types of content, we then analyze aspects of the display such as its colors, contrast, black levels and more using reference scenes we have specifically chosen to best evaluate these.

When testing an OLED&#;s picture quality, we&#;re looking for deep black levels and contrast, which should be better than many other TVs on the market thanks to the screen&#;s ability to dim individual pixels over local dimming found in LCD TVs &#; often this is determined by zones and the backlight&#;s ability. We&#;ll also look at the color&#;s vibrancy and punchiness compared to textures and details, particularly sharpness and true-to-life accuracy. 

Using lower-resolution sources such as broadcast and DVD, we&#;ll also test a TV&#;s upscaling, looking to see how effectively that TV&#;s processing can enhance lower-res images to be displayed on a larger, 4K screen. During these tests, we also consider the viewing angle from off-center seats, which &#; again with the OLED panel&#;s ability to self-dim &#; should maintain strong contrast levels and picture quality even from the most awkward of viewing positions. 

After these subjective tests, we then take specialized equipment &#; a colorimeter, test pattern generator and Portrait Displays&#; Calman calibration software &#; to perform objective tests and record the results, taking measurements of brightness, color and grayscale accuracy, gamut and more. 

The first test we usually do is of the TV&#;s brightness. Using different sized white window patterns, we  measure the the TV&#;s peak brightness on windows including 10%, which will show the maximum brightness we can expect from the TV itself, and 100% to test full screen brightness, which will demonstrate how the TV can handle consistent levels of brightness across the whole screen (this is key when viewing sports). Full screen brightness also gives an idea of how well a TV will manage reflections.

OLED TVs  have often been known to offer lower levels of brightness when compared to QLED and mini-LED. But in recent years, the introduction of OLED EX panels and micro-lens-array (MLA) tech means we expect higher peak brightness levels, but still lower full screen brightness when compared to other LCD panels. We use light controlled environments when testing brightness to make sure any other light sources, environmental or otherwise, does not affect results. 

We also test color color reproduction in both SDR and HDR to compare its accuracy when displaying different source materials and the maximum color gamut it can show on screen. We do the same for grayscale as well, testing just how accurately a TV displays gray tones from black to white. With OLED TVs, we expect color accuracy to be among the best in the TV market, along with grayscale. 

Gaming is another important aspect of TVs nowadays, so we make sure to test a TV&#;s gaming performance by analyzing response time, graphics and latency &#; all of which are areas OLED TVs often excel at. We also look out for features such as a Game Mode (for adjusting a TV&#;s settings to the most optimum for gaming), 4K 120Hz, VRR and more. We measure response time by using a Leo Bodnar 4K HDMI input lag tester to see what latency is added by a TV&#;s processing. 

We always aim to keep our testing as consistent as possible, but it&#;s important to note that some of our writers&#; setups and testing environments do vary. We do, however, make sure that all tests conducted  use the same criteria between all of our writers, also making sure that the equipment is similar enough to achieve the same level of accuracy. 

Also Consider

As we head into the second half of , we have completed reviews of the LG G4 and LG B4 and will be updating this guide shortly with those new models. The G4 is the company&#;s flagship model for and features a next-gen MLA (Micro Lens Array) OLED panel claimed to be capable of 3,000 nits peak brightness. And the B4 is LG&#;s entry-level OLED, but one offering picture processing and gaming features typically found on higher-end TVs.

We also have a review in the works of Sony&#;s new Bravia 8 OLED TV, a model that uses the company&#;s high-end XR processor to improve picture quality and also has an Acoustic Surface Audio+ feature that delivers superior built-in sound by placing speakers behind the TV&#;s display panel. The Sony A95L, a model, also continues in the Sony lineup as its flagship OLED TV.

The second half of will also see new OLED TV releases from Panasonic and Philips, though these will not be available in North America. The Panasonic Z95A will feature a similar next-gen MLA OLED panel as the LG G4 along with 144Hz support for gaming and the Amazon Fire TV smart platform for streaming, while the Z90A will be available in a 42-inch size with an external soundbar. And the Philips OLED+959 and OLED+909 will both feature high-brightness MLA OLED panels, 144Hz gaming, and 5.1.2ch and 3.1ch speaker systems, respectively.

August 2,
Updated the format of this guide to offer more information about the merits of each TV's different strengths and weaknesses, with personal insight from our reviewers.

July 4
Added 'Also consider' section with details on forthcoming new OLED TVs and carryover models in .

Read more updates&#;

June 7
Swapped the LG C3 for the LG C4 as the #best for sizes'. The LG C3 is cheaper than the C4 after discounts, but the C4 has had several brightness and processing improvements that make it worth its price. 

May 10
Swapped Samsung S95C for Samsung S95D as the 'Best premium OLED', based on our review. The S95C is cheaper than the new model after price drops, but because it's still high-priced, and the S95D has the new anti-glare screen, we think the model is worth paying up for.

April 11
Rewrote introduction and updated information throughout to ensure all advice is up-to-date.

March 14
Added graphs with data from our testing to each TV's write-up, to make it easy to read and compare that information.

March 6
Expanded the How We Test section with more in-depth information on how testing procedure works and what tests are carried out.

February 5
Replaced the LG A2 with the LG B3 as 'best budget OLED TV.'

January 5
Added the LG G3 as the 'best OLED TV for wall mounting' due to its high review score and special wall-mount bracket.

December 21
Removed the Sony A95K and 'best for picture quality' category. Changed Samsung S95C from 'Brightest OLED' to 'Best premium OLED'.

November 21
Checked all products against our latest reviews to ensure we're happy with the list (we are). Added a link to our Black Friday OLED TV guide.

October 19
Updated the product lists to make the Samsung S90C our number one pick, reflecting our reviews. Added the LG B3 as the best cheaper gaming OLED.

September 21
Added more buying advice for each model.

August 18
Confirmed all links to ensure availability of models in list.

June 26
Added this 'latest updates' section, to help readers see what recent changes have been made. Checked the products in the list against our latest reviews.

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